Sulfur
nonmetal · Group 16 · Period 3
Atomic properties
Market data
Raw material sources & pricing
| Raw Material Form | Grade/Quality | Price Range | Major Sources | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Recovered Elemental Sulfur | 99.5-99.9% S | $140-290/MT | Oil refineries, gas plants | Byproduct from H₂S removal via Claus process |
| Native Sulfur (Frasch Process) | 99.5-99.9% S | $180-350/MT | Poland, Russia, USA (limited) | High energy cost, declining production |
| Pyrite (FeS₂) | 35-50% S | $50-80/MT | China, Spain, Italy | Roasted to produce SO₂ for H₂SO₄ |
| Sulfur Dioxide (from smelting) | SO₂ gas | Varies by contract | Copper, zinc, lead smelters | Converted to sulfuric acid on-site |
Recovered Sulfur - Primary Source (90%+ of Production)
Current Market Price: $140-290/MT (varies by region and quality) Major Sources: Oil & Gas Processing: 70% of global sulfur (recovered from H₂S in sour gas/oil) Metal Smelting: 20% (recovered from SO₂ in copper, zinc, lead processing) Pyrite Processing: 5% (mainly China) Native Sulfur (Frasch): 2023 Production Leaders: China: 19 million MT (including all forms) United States: 8.6 million MT (93% recovered elemental) Saudi Arabia: 6.2 million MT Russia: 5.8 million MT Raw Material Form Grade/Quality Price Range Major Sources Notes Recovered Elemental Sulfur 99.5-99.9% S $140-290/MT Oil refineries, gas plants Byproduct from H₂S removal via Claus process Native Sulfur (Frasch Process) 99.5-99.9% S $180-350/MT Poland, Russia, USA (limited) High energy cost, declining production Pyrite (FeS₂) 35
⚠️ Seawater Sulfur Extraction
Commercial Viability: NOT ECONOMICALLY VIABLE Concentration: 2,700 ppm as sulfate (SO₄²⁻) - abundant but not extracted Chemical Form: SO₄²⁻ (sulfate ion), MgSO₄⁰, CaSO₄⁰, NaSO₄⁻ complexes Status: Despite high concentration, sulfate extraction from seawater is uneconomical. The energy required to reduce sulfate to elemental sulfur far exceeds the value of the product. Note: Seawater is the world's largest sulfur reservoir but remains untapped due to thermodynamic barriers.
Production cost analysis
| Cost Component | $/MT Sulfur | % of Total Cost | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Raw Material (H₂S, SO₂) | $0-20 | 0-10% | Often negative cost (waste disposal credit) |
| Energy (Steam + Electricity) | $30-60 | 20-30% | See detailed breakdown below |
| Labor | $20-40 | 15-20% | Highly automated processes |
| Catalyst (Claus) | $10-20 | 5-10% | Alumina, titanium dioxide catalysts |
| Other Materials & Overhead | $40-80 | 30-40% | Maintenance, chemicals, utilities |
| Total Production Cost | $100-220 | 100% | Compare to selling price: $140-290/MT |
Energy consumption breakdown
| Process Stage | Energy Consumption | % of Total Energy | Energy Type | Key Operations |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Claus Process (H₂S Recovery) | -0.3 to 0.5 GJ/MT | Net Producer | Steam (generated) | H₂S combustion (exothermic), catalytic conversion |
| Tail Gas Treatment | 0.2-0.4 GJ/MT | 20-30% | Natural Gas/Steam | SCOT process, amine scrubbing |
| Sulfur Degassing/Forming | 0.1-0.2 GJ/MT | 10-15% | Steam | H₂S removal, pelletizing/granulation |
| Frasch Process (if used) | 3-6 GJ/MT | 100% | Natural Gas | Superheated water (170°C), compressed air |
Claus Process Energy Details
Thermal Stage: Exothermic - generates 14-17 MT steam/MT S Catalytic Stages: Temperature control 200-350°C Sulfur Condensers: Cooling to 120-160°C Reheating: Between catalyst beds Overall: Net energy producer in most configurations
Frasch Process Energy Details
Water Heating: 60-70% - Superheated to 170°C Pumping: 15-20% - High pressure injection Compressed Air: 10-15% - Sulfur lifting Heat Losses: 5-10% - Through pipes and wells Water Required: 3-38 m³ water/MT sulfur
Commercial forms & specifications
| Product Form | Chemical Formula | Molecular Weight | Typical Purity | Price Range (USD/kg) | Main Applications |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Elemental Sulfur (Solid) | S₈ | 256.52 g/mol | 99.5-99.99% | $0.14-0.29 | Sulfuric acid production, vulcanization |
| Sulfur Granules | S₈ | 256.52 g/mol | 99.5-99.9% | $0.16-0.32 | Agriculture, chemical manufacturing |
| Sulfur Prills | S₈ | 256.52 g/mol | 99.5-99.9% | $0.17-0.33 | Fertilizer, industrial applications |
| Sulfuric Acid | H₂SO₄ | 98.08 g/mol | 93-98% | $0.05-0.15 | Fertilizers, chemicals, metal processing |
| Oleum (Fuming H₂SO₄) | H₂SO₄·nSO₃ | Variable | 20-65% free SO₃ | $0.20-0.40 | Sulfonation, organic synthesis |
| Ammonium Sulfate | (NH₄)₂SO₄ | 132.14 g/mol | 21% N, 24% S | $0.15-0.25 | Fertilizer, flame retardant |
| Sulfur Dioxide (Liquid) | SO₂ | 64.07 g/mol | 99.9% | $0.30-0.60 | Preservative, bleaching, refrigerant |
| Carbon Disulfide | CS₂ | 76.14 g/mol | 99.0-99.9% | $0.40-0.80 | Viscose rayon, rubber chemicals |
| Sulfur Powder (Micronized) | S₈ | 256.52 g/mol | 99.5-99.98% | $0.25-0.60 | Rubber vulcanization, fungicides |
| Flowers of Sulfur | S₈ | 256.52 g/mol | 99.5% | $0.30-0.50 | Pharmaceuticals, agriculture |
| Colloidal Sulfur | S₈ + stabilizers | Variable | 40-50% S | $0.50-1.00 | Agricultural sprays, medicine |
| Sodium Sulfate | Na₂SO₄ | 142.04 g/mol | 99%+ | $0.10-0.20 | Detergents, glass, paper |
Suppliers by country
🇨🇳 China
| Company | Product Forms | Specialties |
|---|---|---|
| Sinopec (China Petroleum & Chemical) | Elemental sulfur, sulfuric acid, granules | World's largest refiner, recovered sulfur from sour gas |
| PetroChina | Elemental sulfur, liquid sulfur | Natural gas processing, sour gas fields |
| China National Offshore Oil (CNOOC) | Recovered sulfur, sulfuric acid | Offshore gas processing |
🇸🇦 Saudi Arabia
| Company | Product Forms | Specialties |
|---|---|---|
| Saudi Aramco | Elemental sulfur, granules, liquid sulfur | Massive sour gas processing, Shaybah & Ghawar fields |
| SABIC | Sulfuric acid, fertilizer-grade sulfur | Integrated petrochemicals, fertilizers |
🇺🇸 United States
| Company | Product Forms | Specialties |
|---|---|---|
| ExxonMobil | Elemental sulfur, sulfuric acid | Refinery operations, sour gas processing |
| Chevron Phillips Chemical | Elemental sulfur, specialty grades | High-purity sulfur, chemical intermediates |
| Marathon Petroleum | Recovered sulfur, prills, granules | Refinery byproduct recovery |
🇷🇺 Russia
| Company | Product Forms | Specialties |
|---|---|---|
| Gazprom | Elemental sulfur, granules, liquid | Natural gas processing, Astrakhan plant |
| Rosneft | Recovered sulfur, sulfuric acid | Refinery operations |
🇦🇪 UAE
| Company | Product Forms | Specialties |
|---|---|---|
| ADNOC (Abu Dhabi National Oil) | Elemental sulfur, granules, liquid | Sour gas processing, Shah gas field |
| GASCO | Recovered sulfur | Gas processing operations |
🇰🇼 Kuwait / 🇶🇦 Qatar
| Company | Product Forms | Specialties |
|---|---|---|
| Kuwait Petroleum Corporation | Elemental sulfur, prills | Refinery operations, sour gas |
| Qatar Petroleum | Elemental sulfur, granules | Natural gas processing, North Field |
🇨🇦 Canada
| Company | Product Forms | Specialties |
|---|---|---|
| Suncor Energy | Elemental sulfur, formed sulfur | Oil sands operations, sour gas processing |
| Shell Canada | Recovered sulfur, prills | Natural gas processing, refining |
Market demand by product form
| Product Form | Global Market Size | USA Market | China Market | Growth Rate (CAGR) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sulfuric Acid | 260 million MT | 15% share | 40% share | 3.5% |
| Elemental Sulfur | $25 billion | 12% share | 25% share | 4.73% |
| Fertilizer Applications | $18 billion | 18% share | 35% share | 5.2% |
| Chemical Processing | $12 billion | 20% share | 30% share | 4.5% |
| Rubber Industry | $3.5 billion | 15% share | 40% share | 5.5% |
| Specialty Sulfur Chemicals | $2.8 billion | 25% share | 20% share | 6.5% |
| Agricultural Sulfur | $1.2 billion | 30% share | 15% share | 7.0% |
Market trends
Fertilizer Demand: Growing food security concerns driving 70% of sulfur consumption through phosphate fertilizers Environmental Regulations: Stricter SOx emissions driving increased sulfur recovery from refineries and smelters Battery Technology: Lithium-sulfur battery development creating new high-purity sulfur demand ($4.6M funding to Molyon) Gas Processing Growth: Middle East sour gas projects (ADNOC, Aramco) adding 5+ million MT/year capacity Price Volatility: Regional disparities - USA $140/MT, China $290/MT, Europe $195/MT (Q1 2025) Supply Chain Shifts: Sanctions and geopolitical tensions affecting Russian sulfur exports Circular Economy: Increased focus on sulfur recovery vs. disposal, particularly in metal smelting
Moles per kilogram
| Product Form | Formula | MW (g/mol) | Moles/kg |
|---|---|---|---|
| Elemental Sulfur (atom basis) | S | 32.07 | 31.19 |
| Sulfur (S₈ molecule) | S₈ | 256.52 | 3.90 |
| Sulfuric Acid | H₂SO₄ | 98.08 | 10.20 |
| Sulfur Dioxide | SO₂ | 64.07 | 15.61 |
| Ammonium Sulfate | (NH₄)₂SO₄ | 132.14 | 7.57 |
| Sodium Sulfate | Na₂SO₄ | 142.04 | 7.04 |
| Carbon Disulfide | CS₂ | 76.14 | 13.13 |
References
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